Civil Rights essay Assignment 1 Question 1 Essay

In the following essay I will highlight how far the Civil Rights Movement between 1950 and 1969 improved the position of African Americans in relation to Education, their social, political and economical position, with particular emphasis to both the successes and failures of the Civil Rights Movement. During the 1950’s the National association for the advancement of coloured people (NAACP) and other civil rights pressure groups used the courts in an attempt to end racial discrimination. The NAACP appealed to the supreme court in 1952 in an attempt to rule that school segregation was unconstitutional, however they failed as the court ruled that separate schools were acceptable as long as they were ‘separate and equal’. It was relatively easy for the NAACP to show that separate schools were definitely not equal. As a result, the Supreme Court made a ruling in 1954 that separate schools were not equal and ruled that they were therefore unconstitutional. This ruling appeared to be a success for the civil rights movement and to a slight degree it was, because it was now unlawful for school pupils to be segregated, however states in the Deep South refused to accept the judgement of the Supreme Court. In September 1957 the Governor of Little Rock, Arkansas used military force to stop black students from attending the Local school. These events were shown around the world damaging the image of the United States as leaders of the ‘free world’. The media attention had a positive effect for the civil rights movement as it forced the President, Eisenhower to intervene by sending troops to Arkansas to ensure black children could attend the school. Although it was now illegal to segregate black and white students by 1963 only 10% of black students went to integrated schools. So although the civil rights movement did have some success in addressing inequality in education between 1950 and 1969 their success was very limited. Socially Black people were discriminated almost everywhere. They were treated as second class citizens, been prevented from mixing with white people on public transport, in restaurants and other social places. If they disobeyed they were arrested and fined. In 1952 segregation on inter state railways was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court. This was followed by a similar judgement in 1954 concerning inter state buses. However states in the south continued their own policy of segregation whereby white people sat at the front on public transport while black people sat at the back. One particularly humiliating rule was that if a bus was crowded blacks had to give up their seats for whites. On December 1st 1955 a black lady called Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat and was arrested, this act lead to black people boycotting buses until passengers were completely integrated. Despite been harassed and intimidated the boycott continued for thirteen months when due to loss of income the Montgomery bus company finally accepted integration. However this success was only limited and segregation still continued in some parts of the south. In 1961 the congress of racial equality began to organise ‘freedom rides’ black and white volunteers sat next to each other as they travelled through the deep South. The volunteers were beaten and assaulted. The freedom riders, like the conflict at Little Rock were successful, because they generated world publicity, to the racial discrimination suffered by blacks in America which in turn lead to change. The Civil Right Act passed in 1964 prohibited segregation in hotels, restaurants, shops, libraries, transport and places of recreation. In 1950 segregation was legal. Organisations such as the Ku Klux Klan, the White League and the Knights of the White Camelia existed with their main objective been to stop black people from voting this was in order to maintain ‘ white supremacy’ Successful black businessmen were attacked and any attempt to form black protection groups such as trade unions was quickly dealt with. In 1964 The Council of Federated Organizations launched a massive effort to register black voters. They began a march to Montgomery to support voting rights. The incident was dabbed ‘bloody Sunday’ by the media. The march was successful as it was considered the catalyst for pushing through the voting act five months later. Congress passed the voting right act of 1965 making it easier for southern blacks to register to vote. The right to vote established in 1965, gradually began to take effect. In 1963 there were less than 50 black elected officials in the South. By 1984 the number had grown to 3,498. In 1968 President Johnson signed the civil rights act of 1968 prohibiting discrimination in the sale, rental and financing of housing. Despite all this it was difficult to change attitude, white people continued to resist the new laws. Research carried out in 1960 showed that housing segregation was more common than it had been in 1950. In 1950 black wages were on average only 61% of those paid to whites. Low wages and unemployment forced many black people to live in poor housing and in run down areas. Citizen councils set up by the whites all over the deep South made it impossible for black people who advocated desegregation to find jobs, get credit or renew a mortgage, they could do this as they controlled the money and had the power to do so. The Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in employment and was important in the struggle for black equality. However discrimination is difficult to prove and changing the minds of people who thought of the blacks as slaves and second class citizens was not easy. In 1964 more black people were unemployed than in1954 and those with jobs still received lower wages. In reality discrimination in employment continued. Despair led to violence between 1964 and 1968, riots took place in 215 different cities, resulting in death and serious injury to hundreds of people, as a direct result of the despair and hopelessness felt by the African Americans The Civil Rights Movement between 1950 and 1969 began a chain of events that were to cause positive changes in the way in which African Americans were treated. But the problems were immense and discrimination wide spread. The Civil Rights Movement lead to some success and improvement in the education, social, political and economic life of African Americans though this success was minimal even today inequality still exists to some extent. The main tactic of the Civil Rights Movement had been to use the Courts to end racial discrimination this was successful as it led to many changes in the law. However the changes in the law did not result in changing peoples deep seated racism views and believes.

Racism in “Snow Falling on Cedars” by David Guterson Essay

In Snow Falling on Cedars, the theme of racism stands out most strongly. Events, characters’ attitudes, and emotions are all directly related with the surrounding environment of racial tension, caused by war hysteria. This prejudice retains a strong hold over the people of San Piedro Island, as well as all over America at this time. Events in the novel take place as a direct result of bigotry, such as the search for a â€Å"right handed Jap.† This comment made by Horace Whaley to Sheriff Moran, caused a search warrant to be issued, with special attention to persons of physically apparent Japanese descent. Even while in court, a supposed place of justice, racial barriers still existed. Nels Gudmundsson attempted to overcome this obstacle by his statement of â€Å"†¦the shape of Kabuo Miyamoto’s eyes, the country of his parents’ birth — these things must not influence your decision. You must sentence him simply as an American, equal in the eyes of our legal system to every other American.† to the jury. Most characters in the novel are racist against the Japanese, except Arthur Chambers, who is accused of siding with the â€Å"enemy† for contributing Japanese points-of-view into his newspaper editorials, and his son, Ishmael, who later views Japanese in a negative light. Ishmael’s change in attitude occurs because of his frustration in the failure of his pursuit of Hatsue. Etta Heine’s attitude towards the Japanese is among the worst of any character in Snow Falling on Cedars. She does not see the Japanese as an equal race, but as an evil, vengeful race with ulterior motives. Etta’s skepticism becomes obvious in the meeting between Carl, Zenhichi, and herself, through her thoughts; â€Å"he was always nodding†¦It was how they got the better of you–they acted small thought big†. David Guterson developed the theme by the general condescending attitude and actions by the whites towards the Japanese. There is constant tension between characters of different races (Etta and Zenhichi), problems with interracial relationships (Ishmael and Hatsue), and a fearful, bigoted dialogue; â€Å"They’re Japs†¦We’re in a war with them. We can’t have spies  around.† The majority of elements in the novel revolve around racial issues, as Guterson creates an important and poignant theme of a difficult era in American history.

Movie theatre Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Movie theatre - Essay Example He is directly behind the couple who are now standing, waving their arms at each other. They turn and look at him, then sit down and quit arguing. A few rows down from them, I see an even younger couple sitting next to eachother amongst a group of teenagers. The boy yawns tentively, and lays his arm across the back of her torn seat. She looks up at him and smiles sweetly. Off to the right of them, in the wheelchair accessible area is an older couple. Their backs are not as straight, she looks tiny and shrunken in her wheelchair. He leans toward her carefully and holds a drink so she can sip through the straw. He then places the drink back in the holder and lays his hand gently on her knee. They are content. The lights go down and the previews begin. I am struck with the idea that I have already seen all of life's drama before me, before the movie began. We watch movies to experience emotions of the characters; when true emotion is all around us. The young couple's first date, the argument of the younger adults, and the quiet contentment of the elderly make for an unmistakably real drama. It is a movie I will replay in my head, reminding myself that life is a stage and we are but actors upon it.

Assignment 4 women psy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assignment 4 women psy - Essay Example Feminists were serious in proving their arguments. Meta-analytical researches were done. Such researches yielded a variety of results and explanations. In some experiments where subjects were informed that the tests they will take were either gender-fair or not, subjects would usually perform in accordance to their pre-conceived notions about the test. One example is Spencer’s experiment on the differences in math abilities of males and females. College students of equivalent math backgrounds took math tests. Half were told that the math test showed gender differences in the past and half were told that the test has been shown to be gender fair. As expected, among those who believed that the test was gender fair, there were no gender differences in performance, however, with those who believed it showed gender differences, women under-performed compared to men. This may be explained that stereotypes about women faring less than men in mathematics may have affected their perfor mance. Such researches imply that stereotypes have the power to dictate how people may behave in certain situations. At the same time, it may be used as an excuse whenever people fail or succeed at one point or another, lessening accountability on the person himself. In the case of the experiment discussed, women may use the stereotype that they are weaker in math whenever they encounter difficult math problems. There are some theories that gender differences may spring from a biological reason, that males are differently wired from females, that they might have more hormones that may trigger aggressive tendencies and other stereotyped behaviors for males. Other theories attribute gender differences in social learning, that boys and girls behave the way they do because they have been trained as society expects them to- that girls are â€Å"sugar and spice and everything nice† and boys

Is war an inevitable feature of international politics Essay

Is war an inevitable feature of international politics - Essay Example multiplicity of governments are not reduced to one government and international politics transformed to domestic politics." In order for war to begin, a relationship should exist between two parties, as it is a mistake or disagreement in this relationship which leads to war occurrence. So is the growing number of formed relationships due to globalisation increasing the unavoidability of war (1) Fighting is more than only competition between countries, because competition does not inevitably entail a party trying to gain an advantage by dropping their adversary's position. War is more aggressive; it includes conflict and it usually violent. The causes why countries go to war are plentiful and varied; instances include countries going to war to gain or enlarge the territory they possess, in support of other countries, to keep prestige and to defend or advance their economic interests. The goal of war could be disputed to be to show which party is 'stronger' in cases where this is not definite, as weaker countries will frequently be too frightened to fight, and stronger countries won't have a necessity to fight. It was revealed that the closer two countries are in terms of political and cultural features, the lower the opportunity of a war beginning between them. But the great amount of countries around the world means that there is a large quantity of cultures and background, and the alliances formed between like-minded countries are raising the disagreement between the different-minded countries. Donnelly analysed the relationship between international war and the creation of alliances and states that this is where the start of war lies. In general, countries which have lasting formal alliances frequently go through more wars than those nations which do not. And since alliances between major powers often have alliances of other majors powers as opponents, the incidence and size of wars is likely to augment in the following years. (3) There are two main ideas regarding war: that it is natural, and that it is not. The 'rational act' view argues that people are naturally aggressive and hostile, and war is therefore something inherent to humans, and that although war is unpleasant, it is sometimes necessary. Some theorists who regard war as part of human nature have traced it to being a result of our animal descent, or cruelty in an earlier age. Von Bernhadi stated that war is a "biological necessity" and that it was beneficial as it allows the taking away the weaker countries and therefore ensures the continued existence of stronger countries. "War was regarded as a fact of life and as a useful instrument of diplomacy, not as a problem. Peace, considered as an essential condition of international relations, was no preoccupation" (Ceadel 1996) Many European sociologists even consider conflict, and consequently the war, to be serving a positive idea in humanity. On the other hand, in spite of the plentiful claims made about the easiness of war, the facts to support this are too weak. (1) If war is peculiar to humans, then why are wars not conducted between countries at all times Why is it that wars only happen at definite times, and not all the time The contrasting view of war is that it is not innate in humans, but that it is brought about by exterior factors. The examination of the "irrational act"

Health Administarion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 6

Health Administarion - Essay Example The rate of hiring or firing employees is also another indicator of the performance of the organization. Positive and encouraging feedback from both the clients and the stakeholders of the organization is an indicator of good performance in the organization. However, if the feedback is constantly marked by threats and disappointing remarks, it indicates something is not ok in the organization’s performance. Productivity outcome is mainly indicated through the profits and losses in an organization in a financial year. If the profits outride the losses, then it is an indicator that the organization is performing well. When the losses are more than the profits, then the company is not performing well. The productivity outcome should however not be based on only one financial year but several continuous ones. Finally, if no new clients are being recruited in the organization frequently or they keep on leaving the organization and seeking services and products of other organizations, then this is an indicator that something is wrong with the performance of that organization. If however new clients keep coming and the old ones are retained, then performance of the organization is

School Nurse Roles Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

School Nurse Roles - Research Paper Example In fact, only 93 (22.63%) respondents out of 411 were not nurses yet they were in one way or another in the allied health profession. Some were still working on their certification in nursing or have an undergraduate degree in allied health sciences . Also, the survey appears to have drawn a bigger participation rate in smaller districts with 1-4 schools in the district (47.32 %). The questions were sent through IASN list serv which reached over 625 people. Upon analyzing the data , it was surprising to learn that out of 409, respondents only 52.81% of the schools in the district have a Registered Nurse. This is quite disturbing since some schools in the district have enrollment rates as big as 40,000 students. As previously mentioned, the schools in the smaller districts were even more staffed with RN than those schools belonging to larger districts. Also, most of the school nurses are also responsible for other schools in the same district. Moreover, most of the schools have only 1 RN with no health aide (CNA) to support the nurse. Although some have CNAs to assist them, others have only secretaries or clerks to support the medical staff . Unfortunately, even the assistants work on a part-time basis and perform different roles in the school too The survey also revealed that smaller districts have even more nurses than those of schools in larger districts.

Racial Profiling Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Racial Profiling - Essay Example Moreover, the racial biased activity cannot be sanctified under any legitimate body and across the history of human crimes, it has been noted that at times the Racial Profiling gets limited to a very narrow activity, but there are also evidences where the act of Racial Profiling has been very stark and broad as in the past, police authorities have been found critical of a particular race or ethnic class in forming a reaction against suspicion and taking action against an individual based on a racial suspicion. In the United States particularly, the issue of Racial Profiling is gaining a very serious and a growing ground. With Americas first African American President elected four years ago, a considerable point of turning in the century old battle of America’s racial equality was being noticed. Yet, the government and the society of America have still left miles to cover when instances like frisking another former president and a global dignitary prop up. Former President of I ndia Dr, APJ Abdul Kalam was frisked twice at the JKF airport, New York, under a suspicion framed on his being a south East Asian and Muslim moreover. This essay shall throw light on the narrow shortcomings of the system of Racial Profiling and will also uphold the subtle factors that are hampering the growth, unity and position of the United States for maintaining Racial Profiling in the global domain and within the country as well (Debate.org, â€Å"History and Debate of Racial Profiling†; The Times of India, â€Å"Former President APJ Abdul Kalam Frisked Twice in US†). RACIAL PROFILING AND ACCEPTANCE OF LAW ENFORCEMENT PRACTICE At the outset of the argument itself, it is quite evident to quote that Racial Profiling should not get a proper and uniformed sanctity from law enforcement authorities across the nation. Already in many jurisdictions in the United States itself, the practice of Racial Profiling facet has been termed illegal. In the year 2001 itself, former p resident of America George W. Bush summoned a Joint Session of Congress and made a declaration that Racial Profiling is viewed by America as illegal and America is soon going to put an end to the practice. The United States of America, from its name to its founding ideals, envisage the philosophy of liberty, equality and fraternity. Upon these three pillars of liberty, equality and fraternity, did the founding fathers laid the pavement for America’s unity and integrity. However, the founding fathers of the nation while framing the constitution of America were least aware of the complexity, it was about to face. Suspecting any individual based on his race or ethnicity without a probable reason of suspicion actually curbs his or her individual liberty and dignity (Department of Justice, â€Å"Racial Profiling†). Under this light, Racial Profiling can be viewed as a battle of an individual against his race or color. African Americans, Hispanics or Asians who have the citi zenship in America and pay a considerable amount in the development of the nation are also not being spared. A man black in color if waits long at the corner of the street, waiting for his bus, definitely will be picked up by the patrolling van and asked questions about his backgrounds. Black teenagers in America are the softest targets of interrogation and they actually fear their free movement within the country. Situations for the Asians and specially Southeast Asians after the attacks of 9/11 are worst; they are stopped,

Death of a Salesman Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Death of a Salesman - Research Paper Example Out of the many themes like nostalgia ,opportunity, madness, gender differences, growth, capitalism and hazards of modernity, the most interesting and important one is ‘capitalism’ which leads to unprecedented consumerism and the growth of an infectious thought that money is important than everything else in life. Willy Lowman, the hero of the play is a victim of ruthless capitalism. His end is tragic and he is the representative of millions of helpless people who are thrown out by a system whom they have served for a lifetime. In the beginning of the play we see him as an exhausted man of 60 years, who has been fired out of his company for making no profit. This event itself points to the corporate world which gives no place for sentiments or personal relationship. Willy Lowman is the cross section of an ordinary American salesman who had to earn his living by the smile of his face and the shine of his shoes. The most touching moments of the play are though his efforts were mercilessly denounced by the capitalist world, he continues to be loyal to the system until his death. Another pathetic reality is that nobody attended Willy’s funeral. ... The dark shades of capitalism and business have been projected throughout the play. When Willy is fired from his job, his boss Howard says â€Å"you gotta admit, business is business† (Act II, 65). This comment of Howard shows that profit is what matters and there is no room for friendship or sentiments. Willy argues in vain â€Å"you can’t eat the orange and throw the peel away, a man is not a piece of fruit† (67). In this scene Miller blames the inhumane and impersonal nature of capitalism. Even though Howard very well knows Willy’s financial situation that he has no salary and no commissions, his wife does not work, and he is a travelling salesman who cannot drive any longer, Howard still encourages Willy to by a wire recorder. This scene brings out the ridiculing attitude of the capitalist society toward someone who is now useless, forgetting their long term service and sincerity that built up the corporate domain. Miller does not attempt to attack cap italism in his play. But he blames Willy’s unprofessional attitude for his failure. Willy is incompetent to be a good salesman anymore. He has lied to Howard to cling on to the office as well as he says Bernard will not succeed as he lacks charm. As Sterling points out, time proves that Bernard earns a successful life due to his hard work and personality and charm takes his two sons ‘nowhere in the business world’ (6). The play revolves around the objective of making money, and in that rat-race everything else is trivialized. In the attempt to actualize the American dream, it gets corrupted by a visionless society filled with poverty and suffering. The play shows the mentality of people driven by

Apple Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words - 1

Apple - Essay Example These software and hardware systems have long provided success with regard to the company’s profitability. Moreover, while the company’s programmers, engineers, designers, and other personnel represent key resources, Apple Inc.’s capability to exploit these personnel’s abilities to develop hardware and software ecosystems encompasses the firm’s key ability. On an individual level, the resources represent only a temporary fraction of the firm’s competitive advantage. However, the combination of all the personnel’s abilities creates the firm’s sustainable competitive advantage. The establishment of Apple stores also provided the company with significant resources for physical presence since the stores act as sales locations, as well as means of advertisement. The stores allow the company to monitor and control brand image within the market. In order to maintain its current, strategic position, and enhance its success in the coming years, Apple Inc. should establish highly innovative software and hardware to augment its current resources. In addition, the company should also endeavor to employ personnel with Jobs’ passion for excellence (Lashinsky 58). Such personnel should not only form the company’s strategic planning department, but all departments in the entire company. Situational Analysis The company has a rather intriguing mission statement that not only provides focus to the company in terms of its business operations and processes. The company’s website provides a list of its products rather than a conventional mission statement. The company’s official mission statement states that it designs Macs, the best personal computers globally, alongside OS X, iLife, iWork, and other professional software. Apple directs the digital music revolution through its iTunes online store and iPods. However, popular beliefs hold that Apple Inc. got its conventional mission statement from on e of Steve Jobs’ quotes during the 1980s. Jobs’ quote can be summarized as follows: â€Å"Man is the developer of change in the world. As such, man should be above all systems and structures, and not secondary to them† (Lutchen 72). While various sources consider all these statements as the true mission statement, the company ends most of its press releases through a statement that bears a resemblance to traditional mission statements. The company ends its press releases with the statement, â€Å"Apple commits to the provision of the best personal computing experience to educators, students, customers, and creative professional across the globe through its innovative software, hardware, and Internet offerings.† The company’s mission statement provides a sense of direction, which is sufficiently flexible to the changing market situations. The company’s motivation to continue providing the best hardware, software and Internet offerings, means that it will develop technologies to adapt according to market situations. The industry has many successful competitors that pose a challenge to Apple Inc. However, the company’s strategy allows the firm to remain successful. Apple’s main competitive advantage lies in its broad array of products, especially its software, hardware, and Internet solutions (Cruikshank 81). The company’s immense resources such as personnel provide the backing for the company’s policies and strategies. This means that the company requires dedicated personnel to help it put

Strenght of Women in Indian Novels Essay Example for Free

Strenght of Women in Indian Novels Essay India has been a country where males have dominated society and oppressed the fairer sex. Only recently have things changed and currently India has its first woman president. This domination has caused women to actually believe that they are indeed inferior to men. It is therefore not surprising to find women content with the subservient life they were forced to lead, like in Mulk Raj Anand’s ‘The Coolie’ where in Munoo’s village, his aunt â€Å"†¦had done the housework herself, untiringly uncomplainingly and quietly. But in stark contrast, to find women voicing their opinions, or acting against the norms of society does shock the average Indian because examples are few and far between. Interestingly therefore, I was surprised to find that out of nine Indian novels that I read I found women with strong characters in six. The strength of these women can be categorized into three distinct groups with two books under each subdivision. The first category would consist of women with strong will powers, the second would describe women who fought against society and the final category would comprise of women who committed homicide. The first example of undaunted will power is in Sharat Chandra’s ‘Queen’s Gambit’ aka ‘Chandranath’ where the daughter of a widow who eloped with a man is married to a rich village Brahmin, only for the villagers to oppose the union with the husband following suit. He refuses to eat from her â€Å"†¦filthy hands†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Despite being pregnant, the wife quietly walks away from her husband’s life and begins life afresh in the company of an old chess player. She gives birth to a baby boy whose father isn’t present for the first few years of his life. But the father returns and the wife not only forgives him for having deserted them but taunts him for his previous remark of eating her cooking â€Å"†¦will you eat rice from my hands? † She then goes back to the village to resume the life they once had. Similarly in the 2008 Booker Prize winning ‘White Tiger’ by Arvind Adiga we see Pinky Madam disgusted with life in India, and wanting to return to the life she once had in America. She perpetually complains to her husband telling him â€Å"†¦Why can’t we go back Ashoky? Look at this fucking traffic jam†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å"†¦You promised me, Ashoky, we’ll be in Dehli just three months and get some paperwork done and go back†¦Ã¢â‚¬  But her husband has come to stay in India for good, and when one night in a drunken stupor she runs over a child on the road, a change begins in her. She feels guilty and even more so, when the husband and the brother in law decide to charge the driver with the crime. Nonetheless, some miracle saves the driver but Pinky madam isn’t satisfied and feels guilty for her crime, she wants to compensate the family despite the opposition from everyone else in the household. When denied this opportunity she takes matters into her own hands. She commands the driver in the middle of the night â€Å"†¦Ã¢â‚¬ËœYou’re going to drive me’†¦ she got out at the airport – then slammed the door and left†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Thus she chooses to renounce her rich and luxurious life and divorce her husband because she feels she has wronged society. But in our next category, it is society that is doing wrong to a history professor. In Gita Hariharan’s ‘In Times of Siege’, a writer of history books, Shiv, touches a sensitive issue when seemingly demeaning the image of Basava a Hindu poet who was regarded widely as a divine figure. Fundamentalists storm protests against the helpless man and even ransack his office. His sole helper in his time of siege is the daughter of a family friend, Meena, who has broken a foot and is living with him, while his wife, Rekha, is away. Meena is dynamic despite her handicap and with the help of her friends’ looks to combat the fundamentalists by distributing pamphlets and organizing rallies, which she hopes will help to exonerate Shiv. Her courage is a mismatch when compared to Shiv’s who seems lost without her and depends on her like the crutches she uses to walk about. â€Å"†¦ Her face glows in the smoky room, almost like an avenging angel’s. Shiv finds himself drawn in†¦Ã¢â‚¬ . They even share a romantic moment: â€Å"†¦Meena, the very heart of things. Meena, a sweet and disturbing mixture of irony and inexperience. Meena, whom he has just about touched; who transformed him, for all of fifteen minutes one evening, to a simple organism†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Finally as the days pass the event is forgotten and the dark cloud of attention lifts from Shiv without any serious consequence. Though in the last case no serious consequence ensues from the action, in Matampu Kunjukuttan’s ‘Outcaste’ the whole race of Namboodiri Brahmins are made to pay for their way of life, which permits illicit liaisons in the case of men, while women found guilty of this crime are ex-communicated. The birth of a girl in the â€Å"†¦Thazhath House†¦Ã¢â‚¬  begins what Chematiri Otikkan, a reputed astrologer and priest, calls the â€Å"†¦Kali Yuga†¦Ã¢â‚¬  or the destruction of their kind. Even though he foresees the havoc this girl will bring about on their sect, Chematiri agrees to educate the child. A beautiful Naboodiri Brahmin by birth she learns everything her master has to teach till she comes of age. She is then married to man whose elder brother is unmarried. At first to her horror on her wedding night it is the elder brother who enters her chamber before the younger brother, who stands guard at the door, which is bolted from the outside. As soon as the elder brother touches her â€Å"†¦inner eye opened. The purpose of her birth was revealed to her in that moment. Her weariness vanished†¦The primal figure of the Mother Goddess in a graveyard, wearing a garland of skulls, gleefully sucking the blood trickling from the decapitated demon’s head, appeared in her mind’s vision†¦ In that instance the bridal chamber was transformed into a chamber of birth†¦ Paptikutty! The Goddess of Revenge! The personification of power, an incarnation born on hearing the clarion call of Time itself†¦Ã¢â‚¬  She then has affairs with a numerous important people and records all these experiences with proof and when she is produced in court she reveals all the details and gets many respected Brahmins whom she has seduced, ex-communicated. She is another Femme Fatale that one comes across so often in literature. Finally the last category is dedicated to the murderers, first in Shashi Deshpande’s ‘If I Die Today’ in a medical campus a cancer patient, Guru comes and shakes up the lives of a few families. At first he is looked upon as a friend who is about to die, but as the days pass a general hatred for the man seems to spread like a disease among the doctors. One night he is murdered, and while probing into his death, another innocent man, Tony, is murdered too. The author clearly describes the troubles in the relationship of each of the families and nobody knows who the killer can be, only that it is someone among them. The climax of the story reveals that the murderer is Vidya, the Dean’s sister who seems to have no motive to kill Guru. The only possible explanation given by the storyteller is that â€Å"†¦Remember the relationship between her and her brother. The Dean was four years older. He must have been a tremendous influence on her, right from their childhood days†¦She must have admired him and looked up to him. Let’s just say that and not get too Freudian Oh yes, its obvious now she couldn’t bear anyone to mean more to him than she did†¦Ã¢â‚¬  and â€Å"†¦there was Tony†¦ going about telling everyone he knew who it was†¦ and Tony was not ready to let her know so soon, either†¦ that was when Vidya decided to get rid of Tony before he got any closer†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Even more gruesome than these two win murders are the murders brought about by Queen Supalayat in Amitav Ghosh’s ‘The Glass Palace’. â€Å"†¦ Of all the princesses in the palace, Supalayat was by far the fiercest and most willful†¦ she†¦ fell headlong in love with h er husband, the King†¦ and†¦ in order to protect him from her family she stripped her mother of her powers and banished her to a corner of the palace†¦She then ordered the killing of every member of the Royal Family who might have ever been considered a threat to her husband.

Intellectual Property Rights And Traditional Knowledge

Intellectual Property Rights And Traditional Knowledge Traditional knowledge encompasses the beliefs, knowledge, practices, innovations, arts, spirituality, and other forms of cultural practices that belong to indigenous communities worldwide. The intergovernmental board on rational property and inherent resources, customary awareness and tradition has met ten times since 2001 and the Tenth Session took place in Geneva, 30 November-8 December 2006. The committee has been discussing intellectual property issues as they arise in relation to the protection of traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions and access to hereditary resources and profit sharing. 1) What is Indigenous/traditional Knowledge? Traditional Knowledge is the knowledge usually related to the environment. This knowledge is owned by the whole community. Holders of traditional knowledge want to be protected against publication of culturally sensitive information. A holder of traditional knowledge wants a system which can contribute to the preservation and safeguarding of traditional knowledge and the customary means for their development, preservation and transmission, and promote the conservation, maintenance, application and wider use of traditional knowledge, for the direct benefit of traditional knowledge holders in particular, and for the benefit of humanity in general. WIPO (1999) For example in Australia the case of Dr. Mountford, who undertook an expedition to the Northern Territory outback in 1940. Local Aboriginal people revealed to him tribal sites and objects possessing deep religious and cultural significance for them. The publication was held by the court as it could disclose information of deep religious and cultural significance to the Aborigines. The system should recognize the intrinsic value of traditional knowledge, including its social, spiritual, economic, intellectual, scientific, ecological, technological, commercial and educational value. Intellectual Property law: Intellectual property law covers a wide range of rights and privileges and in the UK is defined by s. 72(5) of the Supreme Court Act 1981 (amended by Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988) to include; There are some serious concerns about the suitability of the existing IPR system to the indigenous peoples traditional knowledge. The indigenous communities generate and posses their traditional knowledge collectively. The difficulty experienced by indigenous peoples in trying to protect their traditional knowledge under intellectual property (IP) rights law stems mainly from its failure to satisfy the requirements for protection under existing IP law. Reference Chapter 2 WIPO (1999) â€Å"Intellectual Property Needs and Expectations of traditional knowledge Holders†, WIPO Report on Fact-Finding Missions 1998-1999, WIPO, Geneva (Publication Number 768E). Source: http://www.wipo.int/globalissues/tk/report/final/index.html 9/05/2008 Paragraph 19 of Doha WTO Ministerial Declaration (WTO Document No. WT/MIN(01)/DEC/1) adopted on 14 November 2001, calls for the TRIPS Council to examine the issue of protection of traditional knowledge and folklore. Source: http://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/minist_e/min01_e/mindecl_e.doc Chapter Three Safety Of Sui-Generis Protection Of Traditional Knowledge And Genetic Resources 3.1. Introduction Traditional knowledge holders are concerned about loss of traditional lifestyles and knowledge because the young ones of the community cannot carry forward traditional practices. They also want their traditional knowledge to be respected together with the holders. They are against misappropriation of traditional knowledge including use of traditional knowledge without any benefit sharing, or use in a derogatory manner. Lack of recognition of the need to preserve and promote the further use of traditional knowledge is also their concern. They also advocate for equity considerations in the sense that the custodians of traditional knowledge to be fairly compensated if traditional knowledge leads to commercial gain. A single solution can hardly be expected to meet such a wide range of concerns and objectives.To address these concerns two options can be put in place namely: Intellectual property rights (IP)system Sui Generis Protection Intellectual property rights (IP) system Intellectual property system can be utilised to commercialize traditional knowledge or prevent its misuse. For example, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander artists in Australia have obtained a national certification trademark. The intellectual property system is useful to universities and RD organizations first as a source of information from where further knowledge can be created and can be used to plan for further studies in the area of concern and as literature. It can be used as a source for products and services when their industrial or commercial exploitation is used for social, cultural or economic gains. Correa, C. (2001) However hindrances for effective management of intellectual property rights are those associated with the lack of abundance in reference materials, necessary to create confidence. Often, the institutional policy will not cover all the areas associated with the different areas of intellectual property. Lack of a dynamic and rewarding policy, which is fully communicated to members, will also be of some hindrance. It is important that stakeholders are involved in its evolution and review process. Finally, the difficulty of enforcement due to infrastructural shortcomings should be expected. This would be viewed as a result of funding, cultural issues and weak economics and industries Sui generic system Sui generis is a Latin phrase which means â€Å"of its own kind.† It is a system which has been designed specifically to address the needs and concerns of a particular issue. Prior Informed Consent Countries have already decided that the existing intellectual property system is not, on its own, adequate to protect traditional knowledge. A number of them have enacted or are in the process of enacting sui generis systems of protection. Access by other parties will be based on the prior informed consent (PIC) of the community obtained accordIng to customary laws. Any benefits arising from genetic resources or associated knowledge will be equitably shared. The Philippines has enacted legislation, and is considering further provisions, giving indigenous communities rights over their traditional knowledge. Access by other parties will be based on the prior informed consent (PIC) of the community obtained accordIng to customary laws. Any benefits arising from genetic resources or associated knowledge will be equitably shared. Costa Rica has not yet fulfilled the participatory process to determine the nature and extent of the sui generis communitary intellectual rights. With this system apart from sharing the benefits, if tangible returns are generated it can attract greater involvement of younger members of the community. However with such a wide range of material to protect and such diverse reasons for â€Å"protecting it†, it may be that a single all-encompassing sui generis system of protection for traditional knowled.The system would allow all plant genetic resources to be monopolised. Plant breeding would thus come to a standstill. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) The Convention, which was agreed in 1992, seeks to promote the conservation of biodiversity and the equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the utilisation of genetic resources. It asserts the sovereign rights of nations over their national resources, the right to determine access according to national legislation with the aim of facilitating the sustainable use of these resources, promoting access and their common use.   To date about more than fifty countries have developed national access and benefit sharing legislation. Some of the examples are mention below. a) â€Å"Pakistan ( Draft Legislation on Entry to Biological and Community privileges, 2004 whose one of its major aims is to protect and encourage cultural diversity, valuing creativity, practices and knowledge of local communities. b) Bangladesh (Draft Biodiversity and Community Protection Act of Bangladesh, 1998).whose number one general objectives is to safeguard the sovereign rights of the Communities that have understanding of biodiversity, and have managed, maintained , preserved, reproduced and improved biodiversity c) India (Biological Diversity Act, 2002; Biodiversity Rules, 2004). Authority is given to the implementation sanction grants-in-aid and grants to the State Bio-diversity Board and Biodiversity Management Committees for specific purposes and also undertakes physical inspection of any area in connection with the implementation of the Act. d) Malaysia (Sarawak Biodiversity Center Ordinance, 1997; Sarawak Biodiversity (Access, Collection and Research) Regulations, 1998; Sabah Biodiversity Enactment, 2000). One of its penalty states that any person who, without a permit from the Council, collects or takes away any protected resources from their habitat or place where they are found or grown or take such resources out of the State, shall be guilty of an offence: Penalty, a fine not exceeding fifty thousand ringgit or imprisonment for a term not exceeding three years or both. e) Philippines (Executive Order No. 247, 1995; Department of Environment and Natural Resources Administrative Orders 96-20, 1996; Wildlife Resources Conservation and Protection Act; Republic Act No. 9147, 2001)† [26]. Article 3 of CBD recognizes the sovereign right of nations. In spite of all these efforts, while entering into ABS contracts the current access and benefit mechanism has failed to effectively resolve the major problems faced by the local communities and countries. Reference Correa, C. (2001) â€Å"Traditional Knowledge and Intellectual Property†, QUNO, Geneva. Source: http://hostings.diplomacy.edu/quaker/new/doc/tkcol3.pdf 09/05/2008 Sui generis system of protection is a distinct system tailored or modified to accommodate the special characteristics of traditional knowledge or folklore.Sui generis systems of protection are already provided in areas such as the protection of plant varieties (UPOV system) and protection of databases (EC Directive 96/9/EC, 11 March 1996. Source: http://www.eurogeographics.org/WorkGroups/WG1/eu_directive.pdf).09/05/2008 Chapter 4 Overview Of The Ipr And Traditional Knowledge Debate In International Negotiations The importance of protecting and preserving indigenous traditional knowledge has been recognized in several international instruments, including the WIPO, CBD and the TRIPS Council of the WTO. 4.2. Convention on Biological Diversity The convention was drafted at the 1992 â€Å"Earth Summit† in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil [30] and it came into force in 1993 [31]. The convention emphasized what is depicted in article 8(j) the most important provision of CBD on indigenous knowledge, it reads: â€Å"Each Agreeing Party shall, as far as likelihood and correctness: focus to its national law, protect, value, and maintain understanding , innovations and of local and practices of local and native group. It implies that local communities embodying traditional life styles possess an equal status to indigenous peoples. 4.2. The Conference of the Parties (COP) COP is a decision making body of the convention whose function is to regularly review implementation of the convention [41]. In 6th convention of Parties, the Working group of Entry and profit sharing adopted Bonn Guidelines [20] under decision VI/24. The ABS Decision of the seventh conference mandated the operational group on ABS and Article 8(j) to expound and bargain an intercontinental regime on access to genetic resources and profit sharing with the objective to efficiently implement the provision in Article 15 aimed Article 8(j) [49]. Comments The COP had failed to take any considerable action at the international level. 4.3. The Bonn Guidelines They were officially adopted to provide for a set of rules that will facilitate the drafting and further development of national biodiversity legislation. The Guidelines encourage parties to â€Å"adopt measures to reveal the source country of the genetic resources and traditional understanding, innovations, , benefit sharing, and norms of local and native group in application for intellectual property privileges. †¢ Criticism The guidelines were criticized by several environmental NGO, arguing that voluntary non binding Guidelines can never replace legally binding instruments. The voluntary position of the Guidelines will provide member states with an excuse for non- action. Analysis Despite of criticisms, they are a vital step towards the harmonization of the regime of access and benefit sharing. The CBD help foster bilateral agreements between the providers and users of resources. 4.4. TRIPS, Traditional Knowledge and Genetic Resources The relevant provisions in this regard could be Article 39 (protection of undisclosed information), if the TK is kept as secret knowledge, and Article 22 (protection of geographical indications). The developing countries also argued that the exclusions in Article 27(3) (b) should be clarified. In November 2001, the widely published â€Å"Doha Declaration† was issued at the fourth WTO Ministerial Conference held in Doha, Qatar. The protection of traditional knowledge and folklore was given particular attention. As a contribution to this examination, several developing countries in together with other groups of developing countries, submitted a paper to the Council for TRIPS in June 2002. The paper proposed that WTO Member States to meet the following requirement: (i) Original disclosure of the country and source of the biological resource traditional understanding used in the invention; (ii) Proof of well knowledgeable consent through approval of authorities under Evidence of prior informed consent through approval of authorities under significant national regimes. (iii) Proof of just and equitable profit sharing under the national regime of the original country.† [63]. The United States and Japan have raised the primary objections to the above. These countries have argued that: (i) Such corrections would not be constant with TRIPs Agreement and would be in violation of the rule of non-discrimination amongst field of technology; (ii) Expanding the norms of disclosure would amount to a legal and administrative â€Å"nightmare† and an unnecessary burden on the patent applicant and the Patent office [64]. Analysis Countries avoid the misappropriation of traditional knowledge and with the implementation of the sharing of benefits principle, than with the development of an intellectual property rights regime for traditional knowledge (most notably U.S. and Japan). 4.5. WIPOs Inter-Governmental board on rational possessions and inherent Resource, customary Knowledge and Tradition. The IGC is very much concerned about enhancing the protection of Traditional Knowledge and has therefore focused on understanding the needs and expectations of traditional communities. Also at the IGC third session, World Intellectual Property Organization produced a paper called â€Å"Elements of Sui Generic System for the Protection of Traditional Knowledge†. [45] In Autumn 2005, the WIPOs General Assembly extended the mandate of IGC to continue its work on achieving feasible solutions to the protection of Traditional Knowledge In July 2007 meeting of the WIPOs Intergovernmental Committee (IGC), the developing countries were demanding an international legally binding instrument to protect their resources, while developed countries such as United States, Japan, want a non-binding recommendation. Indigenous peoples organizations expressed frustration, that both genetic resources and traditional knowledge are open to misappropriation. Organization (WIPO) as to whether there should be a binding International treaty to protect genetic resources, [73]. 4.6. Discussion Winding up the discussion, determination of positive synergies between various international regimes in the context of IPR, vis a vis, protection of GRs and related TK is a politically and technically intricate and challenging endeavor. However it has been shown that addressing some of the cases under conversation and the most significant international forums where this discussion takes place, in regard to TK protection and profit sharing, still remains far from achieved [53]. Law and policy needs to check the following: a) Nations of origin assert their rights over their genetics resources, b) Assured benefits of the use these resources are shared equally. c) Native peoples intellectual efforts well protected [53]. 4.7. Summary Compared to the situation that existed a decade ago, currently WIPO, CBD, Council of TRIPs and several other national and regional process are involved in finding decision to establish constructive synergies among IPR and biodiversity related issues, which in itself is an important development [53]. The author is of the view that one of the effective strategies for developing countries, in the wake of heightened debates over TK protection and monopolization attempts of industrialized nations. Nations exercise sovereignty in the safeguarding of hereditary resources and similar traditional understanding with the kind of measures they put in place. The wealth of genetic resources and related traditional knowledge plays an important part in the general well being, food security and health care of the indigenous communities. Reference Pires de Carvalho, N. (2000) â€Å"Requiring Disclosure of the Origin of Genetic Resources and Prior Informed Consent in Patent Applications without Infringing the Trips Agreement: The Problem and the Solution†, Washington University Journal of Law and Policy, vol. 2, pp.371-401 McDonald, S. (2001) â€Å"Exploring the hidden costs of Patents notes of a talk given at Quakers House Geneva 16 May 2001†, QUNO Occasional Paper 4, QUNO, Geneva. The Indigenous Peoples Rights Act of 1997, Republican Act No. 8371. Source: http://www.grain.org/docs/philippines-ipra-2008-en.pdf, and The Community Intellectual Rights Protection Act 1994 Senate Bill No. 1841 (still pending). Source: http://www.grain.org/docs/philippines-cirpa-2008-en.pdf Chapter 5 The Philippines Experience Philippines have vast variety of traditional knowledge concentrated in health care, agriculture and forestry just to mention a few. The Philippines was the first country to introduced legislation on access to genetic resources, with the signing of Executive Order 247 (EO 247), â€Å"Prescribing Guidelines and Establishing a Regulatory Framework for the Prospecting of Biological and Genetic Resources, their By-Products and Derivatives, for Scientific and Commercial Purposes, and for Other Purposes†, on May 18, 1995 [6]. Because of the wide scope and the procedure required for the prior informed consent, certain problems were experienced in implementing EO 247.The law stipulates that indigenous societies are owners of their knowledge of traditional medicine and when outsiders use the information they must acknowledge the source and demand a share of any financial return coming from commercial use. The legislation however seeks to maintain the free exchange of biodiversity among local communities. This prevents exploitation of the communitys resources by foreigners with no benefits to the actual owners of the resources. In the context of compliance with the International regimes, TRIPS Agreement, the Philippines has an Intellectual Property Code of the Philippines, i.e. Republic Act No. 829300. This code covers economic rights of the country [32].which shows the government commitment towards protecting the rights of indigenous communities to ownership of their resources Analysis Law regulating access to genetic and biological resources (IPRA and EO 247) have both tried to pave the way for mutual research efforts. The use Genetic Resources in safeguarding Traditional Knowledge Vietnam: In spite of the importance hereditary resources and traditional understanding in the lives of Vietnamese people, the results of the survey conducted by WIPO in accordance to test out the legislative steps taken by the Vietnamese government, unfortunately shows that hardly any efforts have been taken by the law makers for the protection of traditional knowledge. However, the Government Decree No. 7-CP of February 1996 elaborates the following measures taken. a) â€Å"Article 4: The overall policy of the Government is to invest for building national capacity in conserving, selecting, producing and carrying on the business of developing seed varieties†. This means greater biodiversity in the country b) Article 8: Genetic resources are to be considered as national property and managed by the State. All organizations and individuals are encouraged to prospect for, collect, preserve, utilize and enrich genetic resources for the benefit of the national economy and social welfare. In this regard, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD) is the main government body responsible for the management of development of seed varieties by the State. This prevents exploitation of national resources for selfish gains. Vietnam and International Regimes Vietnam needs to elaborate a national structure for the safety of heritable resources and customary knowledge. In this regard, MARD is drafting legislation guard of generic resources and similar traditional norms. Protection of Traditional Knowledge in Indonesia The existing Indonesian intellectual property provides little legal protection for traditional knowledge. Some sort of protection is given under the existing â€Å"copyright, distinctive signs and trade secret law† [40]. Some of these laws were further amended In addition, the intention to provide protection to traditional knowledge is also clear from the media report on copyright, Law No 19/2002. And also an informal version of the said law, indicate that â€Å"Article 10 vests in the State the copyright to, inter alia, prehistoric remains, historical and other national cultural objects, stories, legends, folk tales, epics, songs, handicrafts, choreography and dances†[40]. Moreover, the publication by the Indonesian National News Agency shows the government willingness in preventing the outsiders from illegally accessing and patenting other peoples knowledge. [40]. The importance of Intellectual property Rights is visible from submission of the draft of new IPR regulations to the peoples Consultative Assembly. The Indian Experience India formally established under the National Biodiversity Act, Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL). It was considered as a great step forward for preventing misappropriation of traditional knowledge and help in identifying the real traditional knowledge rights holders. The Biodiversity Act 2002 is the first attempt of the Indian legislators attains the aim of CBD. In practice the protection mechanisms are not very effective and are regarded as greatly biased against the safety of the native communities. Guarding of Genetic Resources and Customary Understanding in Pakistan is blessed with enormous amount of natural resources and also is rich in bio wealth. Due to a range of climate zones and various environmental conditions, the country has got a great capability for producing all sorts of food products. A Biodiversity Action Plan for Pakistan (BAP) The increasing environmental problems led to the Biodiversity Action Plan in 1999, which is the most important step taken by the government of Pakistan to prevent biodiversity loss. In collaboration with World Conservation Union, Pakistan (IUCN) and World Wide Fund for Nature, the Government of Pakistan, Ministry of Environment, Local Government and Rural Development, put forward the Biodiversity Action Plan [47]. Draft law on entry to Biological Resources and Community privileges 2004 In order to established fundamental grounds for an ABS mechanism, the Pakistani Ministry of food, Agriculture and livestock is working on draft legislation [49]. This draft is in accordance to the international Convention on Biological Diversity, which will help in providing protection to the rights of indigenous communities of the country. The Way Forward Pakistan has accomplished little so far, due to lack of implementation of the new policies due to lack of funds, skilled personnel and infrastructure. The government should use the sovereign rights stipulated in the CBD to put in place measures to protect biodiversity. In addition, there is a need to address the institutional flaws, which includes the deficiency of monitory and enforcement mechanisms. Claims regarding unfulfilled requirements of patentability. Here we will discuss the well-known cases of Turmeric and Basmati rice, which send a signal to biotech companies or organizations, not to treat the developing countries resources as a free good. 1. The Turmeric Case This has been a milestone success for a developing country like India to protect the traditional knowledge of its indigenous communities and discourages the illegal obtaining of patent over their knowledge. 2. The Basmati Case It was concerned with protection of traditional knowledge and geographical indications. It involved new strains of rice which were to be sold under the name Basmati by a Texas based company, but protests emerged from India and Pakistan over the repercussions the name could have on their communities. The case showed that it is expensive to challenge biopiracy cases. CONCLUSION Effectively protecting the genetic resources, traditional knowledge, and folklore is very important for the developing countries and the most undeveloped countries against the background of the international trade, and concerned with the interests of the developing countries and the most undeveloped countries. If we can find some useful solutions to effectively protect genetic resources, traditional knowledge, and folklore, the position of the developing and most undeveloped countries in the international trade will be strengthened. The issue of protecting of genetic resources and associated traditional knowledge is a global issue and still receives attention it deserves. Generally speaking, WTO agreements, including TRIPS Agreement, are a deal between the developed countries and the developing countries, and the whole agreements of WTO are balanced in the interests of the developed countries and the developing countries. On the one hand, the developing countries accepted the standards or criteria for the protection of intellectual property set up by the developed countries. This is good for developed countries, and helped them to strengthen their position in the international trade. On the other hand, the developing countries participated in the new world trade system, and benefited from this trade system. Some of them even since then have enjoyed MFN from some of the developed countries. There have been championing for the formation of new intercontinental lawful protections for these resources, but questions remained unanswered. Who would benefit from the safety measures created for heritable resources, traditional knowledge, or myths? No country, person or worldwide organization has been able to identify the particular beneficiaries of these sought after security measures. None also has determined to what extent of such safeguarding might be what would involve â€Å"fair use† or additional exceptions of restrictions, or even what enforcement mechanisms could be functional. A few countries want to stop others from using their customs while others want to make or commercialize from such use. How could any one structure include these benefits? And to complicate the matter, there is no contract as to what exact damage would be solved by new means of protection. One step taken to react to customary know how holders, said Linda Lourie, makes sure that patents are not approved on recognized process or products, including those that are measured in customary information. A patent is a funding by a national government to an author for the right to exclude others from producing, using, or selling his or her innovation. To qualify for patent safeguarding in many nations, a discovery must needs to be new, useful and not to be minor addition of what is already known. A few customary understanding the rest will seek Patent regarding greater understanding and reap the profit from it. Though considerable work has been done for the protection of such knowledge and resources, a challenging agenda of research and policy still lingers in the minds of many How extensive are genetic resources and indigenous knowledge of countries, and to what uses can they be utilized. The activities in this regard can be observed, not only in the framework of international organizations, but as several developing countries have also made tremendous efforts for introducing effective legislations for promoting and conserving genetic resources and traditional knowledge. The significance of publishing customary knowledge and making that information accessible to patent examiners worldwide cannot be overemphasized, said Lourie. If customary understanding is documented, that understanding may not be topic of patent, even if it is not broadly known in a developed country. The United States is encouraging other nations to create digital databases to record their customary understanding and guard it from patent attempts. Digital databases would permit patent examiners globally to search and scrutinize customary knowledge. In the US, few Native-American tribes are cataloguing their tribal values in a way that that fulfils the need for recording and the need to deny strangers entry to information. Eric Wilson, the Tulalip ethnic in the dialects in the state of Washington in the US, for instant, have determines who is to have way in to what customary information about their familiarity, culture, history, or practices. Some users have unrestricted entry, while the rest, like US. Patent examiners, may have restricted access. Some holders of customary understanding want to be exact that new technologies original from their customary knowledge include a fair distribution of benefits. These communities may want to bargain contractual benefit-sharing agreements about new processes or products produced through study using their customary understanding. Lourie warned, that it could be a blunder to anticipate from such contracts; to present; few economic repayments have accrued from commercialization of customary knowledge. Factors contributing to this include recognizing that TKs significance in the lives of the popular world and in the preservation of biodiversity, concerns about the massive loss of TK, little or no sharing of resulting payback with the original holders of TK, interest in capturing the potential of TK for local sustainable growth, and increasing concern to native rights. Most importantly, how do providing countries tackle the misappropriation of such knowledge and resources? In all these areas, the developing countries can build a credible international negotiating position. Developing Countries in Asia: The Concerns As far as the smooth and successful adoption of international provisions and regimes into domestic laws

Impacts Of Air Pollution On Living Beings Environmental Sciences Essay

Impacts Of Air Pollution On Living Beings Environmental Sciences Essay The report is related to one of the most important problem which has to be dealt with in the environment, pollution. Our report commences with a brief introduction of pollution. The report then explains what air pollution is and how various pollutants causes air pollution. It is then followed by the impact of air pollution on living beings and the environment. It also discusses how air pollution can be prevented like using different energy sources, managing vehicles, reducing deforestation, etc. As the report progresses, it explains what water pollution is and the various sources which cause water pollution through disposal of wastes. ..Furthermore, the report gives Dell as an example, an industry which highly contributes towards reducing pollution by taking some measures like, recycling products and minimizing waste during their procedures. The report then shows that while working towards reducing pollution, it still has some ill effects towards the environment. It is given that sul phur dioxide helps in cooling the planet and carbon dioxide is also very important for plants. Thus, reduction of these gases in the environment still affects the environment. To round up our report, we conclude that preventive measures have to be taken by people such that we all live a healthy life in a sustainable and a clean environment. Introduction Pollution can be defined as an adverse state or condition of the natural environment. When impurities and other contaminations affect the earths assets, pollution is caused. In most cases it is the human activities that increase the intensity of pollution in the environment. It is said by Richard Buckminster Fuller that Pollution is nothing but the resources we are not harvesting. We allow them to disperse because weve been ignorant of their value. Here, the writer has defined pollution to be a result of human ignorance towards the value of natural resources. With so much diversity in the environment, the presence of several kinds of pollution is also evident. The two main classifications are Air pollution and Water Pollution. Each one has varied causes and preventive measures that are discussed further. Air Pollution When certain kinds of substances have been emitted into the atmosphere such that they have a damaging effect on humans as well as the environment, air pollution is caused (National Geographic Society, n.d). Causes The substances causing air pollution are called pollutants. Various pollutants are responsible for this ongoing disaster; however the chief pollutant is carbon dioxide. Even though, all living creatures exhale carbon dioxide, pollution is caused by the release of carbon dioxide from automobiles, aircrafts, industries and due to various other human actions that include burning of fuels like petroleum and coal. Statistics show that in the last 150 years, the amount of carbon dioxide has increased tremendously as compared to earlier decades, and all of it due to activities executed by humans. Methane is also another, highly dangerous, green house gas. This is emitted from several sources like swamps, animal waste and also from chlorofluorocarbons. Fortunately, the use of chlorofluorocarbons as aerosol propellants and refrigerants has been banned due to its destructive impact on the earths ozone layer. The other major pollutant causing drastic climatic issues is sulphur dioxide that main ly is considered to cause pollution because of its presence in smog (National Geographic Society, n.d). Smog is composed of smoke and fog, and smoke consists of sulphur dioxide. Researchers have shown that smog causes the lining of the human nerves and throat to be stimulated. (National Air Emissions Inventory, 2008) Impacts The impact of air pollution towards both, living beings and the environment has been very high. For humans, air pollution proves to be highly lethal and life taking. The World Health Organization reports that about 2 million people are suffering from diseases and fatalities caused by polluted air. Continuous exposure to pollutants causes various respiratory and cardiac diseases like acute vascular dysfunction, pneumonia, wheezing, coughing, asthma, cardiopulmonary disease, heart attack and more (Borade, 2010) The environment is also significantly affected due to the increasing pollution rate. As mentioned earlier, global warming is being caused due to growing levels of green house gases. The green house gases have been creating certain kind of Holes in the ozone layer of the earths atmosphere. The ozone layer above Antarctica and the Arctic has already started getting depleted, but if the pollution rate continues the way it is now, the depletion will spread further over various other continents and nations. This dangerous depletion is allowing ultraviolet radiations to reach the earth. Hence damaging and destroying several plantations, crops, vegetations and more. Mankind is also severely affected, as these ultraviolet rays cause skin cancer and cataracts which mostly prove to be life taking diseases (Columbia University Press, 2007). Acid rain is another phenomena caused due to mixing of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide with atmospheric moisture, leading to formation of acids like sulphuric and nitric acid. In polluted countries, during monsoon, the rain which is otherwise supposed to be healthy for plants instead creates a negative effect on them. Microorganisms present on plants and also in the soil that are responsible for plant respiration, growth, and other plant processes, get destroyed in this rain, hence leading to inhibiting plant growth (Maya et al, 1998). Prevention A very effective way to prevent air pollution is the use of various other energy sources like solar energy, hydroelectric energy and wind energy. As technology is developing, solar water heaters are used to generate electricity and also for household use like the wind turbine (Sandhyarani. 2011). Planting trees can also prove to be of advantage. Deforestation has kept on increasing in recent times. Trees reduce pollution because they inhale carbon dioxide which is released by many automobiles, industries, and various other sources. It is very essential to plant trees as it is a natural source of reducing pollution (How to do things n.d.).A reduction in fuel usage can immensely reduce air pollution. Alternatives can be used instead of these sources for energy like solar or tidal energy which is natural and more eco friendly (How to do things n.d.). It is very important that the vehicles owned by people are well maintained and kept in good condition as it can also affect the environmen t. Regular servicing of cars and minimizing fuel exhaust can help reduce emission of pollutants to an extent. Also, whenever possible, using the public transport also contributes to prevent air pollution as the number of vehicles used reduces (Ways to Control Air Pollution 2010). Water Pollution Water pollution can be considered as any physical, biological, or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses. The sources of water contamination can be natural, such as poison springs, oil seeps, and sedimentation from erosion. Apart from that water pollution can be caused by humans as well which affect water quality or usability. (Cunningham, 2001) Causes Pollution-control standards and regulations usually distinguish between point and nonpoint pollution sources. Factories, power plants, sewage treatment plants and oil wells can be regarded as point sources because they discharge pollution from specific locations, such as drain pipes, ditches, or sewer outfalls. These sources can be relatively easy to monitor and regulate and can be identified easily. It is generally possible to divert effluent from the waste streams of these sources and treat it before it enters the environment. On the other hand, nonpoint sources of water pollution are scatter or diffuse, having no specific location where they discharge into a particular body of water, non point sources include golf courses, lawns and gardens, construction sites, logging areas, roads, streets and parking lots. Nonpoint sources are often hard to regulate and monitor due to the irregular timing of certain events such as rainfall or drizzle which may flush high concentrations of gasoline, lead, oil, and rubber residues off streets. Point sources can be fairly uniform and predictable throughout the year, whereas nonpoint sources are often highly episodic (Cunningham, 2001). Impacts Prevention Industry Application One very good example of an industry which contributes to prevent pollution is Dell. It was the No. 1 company in NEWSWEEKs 2010 Green Rankings (An American weekly news magazine published in New York City). The company focuses mainly towards minimizing environmental effects through regular process work done within the company like designing and disposing the product. It aims to minimize waste, reuse and recycle products and also to extend the products life span which reduces energy consumption (Michael. 2008). As compared to their laptops made in 2005, the new laptops use 25% lesser energy. It has recycled 7.2 million pounds of recycled plastic from previous customers to make new laptops and computers. With a purchase of new Dell laptops or peripherals, the company accepts used Dell products and also competitors products to recycle free of cost (Green Rankings: The Top 10 in Newsweek, October 2010). Benefits from Pollutants After scanning through all air and water pollutants, it is observed that, knowing its ill effects, the presence of selective pollutants is significant. Sulphur dioxide which is an air pollutant, and which has disastrous effects on the environment, also aids in reducing global warming to a certain extend. A recent study showed that there are certain negative effects of having lower levels of sulphur dioxide in the atmosphere, one of which is, a possible increment in global warming levels. Sulphur dioxide released by volcanoes tends to create a cooling impact on the planet, by obstructing the path of sunlight, hence reducing global warming (National Geographic Soceity, n.d). Also carbon dioxide, which is the chief pollutant, is needed by plants for one of its important life processes i.e. photosynthesis. However, the current ratio of these chemicals in the atmosphere is high and hence the implementation of preventive measures is mandatory. Conclusion Seeing the catastrophic effects of pollution, it is necessary that the human race puts the preventive measures into action. This is because the principles of pollution prevention imply that by reducing pollution people will have a more efficient and sustainable environment. Therefore, it is very important to prevent pollution and it is the responsibility of all individuals and organizations like the government, citizens, industries, etc to contribute to pollution prevention for the environment (Cowan et al. 2005).

Restrictions On Abortion Essay -- essays research papers fc

The Restrictions on Abortions: Post-Roe Cases, Legislation, and Societies' View Since 1973, when Roe verses Wade was decided, there have been several restrictions made to a woman?s right to obtain an abortion. These restrictions have come from several different angles and from a conservative ideological background. The restrictions that have been made to Roe v. Wade have come from other Supreme Court cases that were argued after 1973 and from State and Federal Legislation; which, ultimately, must go through the process of Judicial Review. Before we look at what restrictions have been made, we will look at the history of Roe. Secondly, we will look at Webster verses Reproductive Health Services (1989) and Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992)-the Supreme Court cases which further restricted Roe. And then we look to the most controversial piece of abortion legislation since Roe was decided: The Partial Birth Abortion Ban-House Rule 1833 and Senate Rule 6. Since the decision of Roe verses Wade in 1973, the conservative wing of the American Political spectrum has sough t to impose restrictions on a woman?s right to obtain an abortion. There are very few Americans who do not know what Roe verse Wade is. Moreover, when the issue is raised, most people have a hard-line ?agree? or ?disagree? stance. Scholars also agree that there has been no other Court Case in American history that, 25 years after its decision, still sparks such controversy. Roe verses Wade is a debate that is very much alive and open. In short, Jane Roe, a pregnant single woman, was unable to have an abortion in Texas because her pregnancy did not threaten her life or the life of the child. Although she was told she could go to another state to have the abortion, she did not have the money to do so. Instead, Roe sought legal advice and filed a suit challenging the constitutionality of Texas? abortion law. On January 22, 1973, the Supreme Court ruled that a woman's constitutional right to privacy, provided for by the Fourth Amendment, was more important than a state's right to regulate abortions. This decision, in effect, legalized abortions and, ?pushed a fractured state-by-state debate into a national one and prompted scattered groups to mobilize into pro-choice and pro-life movements.? Since Roe verses Wade decision was handed down, the country and it?s policy makers have been divided on the iss... ...m/abtrbng/pbal.htm 7.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Abortion Law Homepage, The ?Planned Parenthood v. Casey.? Online. The Abortion Law Homepage. Internet. 16 November 1999. Available: http://hometown.aol.com/abtrbng/index.htm 8.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Abortion Law Homepage, The ?Webster v. Reproductive Health Services.? Online. The Abortion Law Homepage. Internet. 16 November 1999. Available: http://hometown.aol.com/abtrbng/505us833.htm 9.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  United States Supreme Court. Audio Transcript. Webster v. Reproductive Health Services. The Oyez Project, Northwestern University. Real Audio. 11 November 1999. http://oyez.nwu.edu/cases/cases.cgi?command=show&case_id=436 10.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  United States Supreme Court. Audio Transcript. Roe v. Wade. The Oyez Project, Northwestern University. Real Audio. 13 November 1999. http://oyez.nwu.edu/cases/cases.cgi?case_id=334&command=show 11.  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  United States Supreme Court. Audio Transcript. Planned Parenthood v. Casey. The Oyez Project, Northwestern University. Real Audio. 13 November 1999. http://oyez.nwu.edu/cases/cases.cgi?command=show&case_id=306

Divorce and the Bible Essay -- essays research papers

The law defines divorce as  ¡Ã‚ §a legal dissolution of the marriage contract by a court or other body having competent authority. This is properly a divorce, and called, technically, divorce a vinculo matrimonii. ``from the bond of matrimony.'' (b) The separation of a married woman from the bed and board of her husband -- divorce a mensa et toro (or thoro), ``from bed board.'' ¡Ã‚ ¨ Does this definition follow that of the Bible? Mark 10:1-12 ¡X  ¡Ã‚ ¥Jesus then left that place and went into the region of Judea and across the Jordan. Again crowds of people came to him, and as was his custom, he taught them. Some Pharisees came and tested him by asking,  ¡Ã‚ §Is it lawful for a man to divorce his wife? ¡Ã‚ ¨  ¡Ã‚ §What did Moses command you? ¡Ã‚ ¨ He replied. They said,  ¡Ã‚ §Moses permitted a man to write a certificate of divorce and send her away. ¡Ã‚ ¨  ¡Ã‚ §It was because your hearts were hard that Moses wrote you this law, ¡Ã‚ ¨ Jesus replied.  ¡Ã‚ §But at the beginning of creation God made them male and female. For this reason a man will leave his father and mother and be united to his wife, and the two will become one flesh. So they are no longer two, but one. Therefore what God has joined together, let man not separate. ¡Ã‚ ¨ When they were in the house again, the disciples asked Jesus about this. He answered,  ¡Ã‚ §Anyone who divorces his wife and marries another woman commits adultery against her. And if she divorces her husband and marries another man, she commits adultery. ¡Ã‚ ¦ According to Mark, Jesus was not only against divorce but he detested the actions of man to allow it against the word of God. He is trying to explain what divorce means to God. Apparently, it is the joining of two people ¡Xminds, bodies, and souls. These people are no longer people. They are a person. He also states that Moses only made the law to solve the problems that humankind was having. It seems that Moses was without patience when making his declaration. The crowd was already going against God, and their religion had taken a step down their priority list. Moses was just giving his people what they wanted to hear. He only allowed the man to give a statement of divorce. He allowed them to take from that what they did. He was still serving his religion with this decision. He was not allowing them to separate their souls. I believe Jesus was only reiterating, or clarifying, this act of Moses. He explained to the masses that Mose... ...owever, in this case, the union of souls is not stressed. How can an unbeliever expect the God that they do not believe in to unite them? Once the unbeliever is saved, the souls will be united and a divorce is not allowed.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  However, if the unbeliever never does accept God, then the he/she is permitted to cut off the marriage. A believer is to stand by the side of his beloved. He/she is held to all the rules of marriage and divorce. This, of course, meaning that the believer calling for divorce does not separate the couple in God ¡Ã‚ ¦s eyes. If the unbeliever calls for a divorce, then it is as if the marriage never took place. They are free to remarry.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Most of these authors hold the same views. Divorce is an accepted thing before man, but not before God. Then, divorce only means that you are allowed to live in separate homes. As far as remarriage goes, it is adultery on the behalf of all involved. The exception from this rule is only applicable if one of the marriage partners is an unbeliever and, as such, calls for the divorce. Then the divorce is a complete divorce and remarriage is allowed without being considered adultery.

Search for Meaning in Shakespeares Hamlet :: Shakespeare Hamlet Essays

Search for Meaning in Shakespeare's Hamlet But I will delve one yard below their mines And blow them at the moon (3.4.208-10) What is real? This question, begged by humanity from day one, seems to grow in importance and urgency as the twenty-first century looms on the road ahead. When religion, culture, family, and meaning are all forced to play second fiddle to the almighty dollar, where do we turn for understanding? I think the answer is that we turn inward. After all, there must be something within the human animal to suggest a moral, or a message, or at least an explanation. Hamlet deals specifically with this introspection, this search for meaning. Prince Hamlet's world has come apart at the seams and he is desperately groping for some sort of guidance. He needs a foundation, a primary principle, an answer of even the smallest kind with which to build a coherent worldview. Unfortunately, Hamlet's philosophical free-fall may be a result of his own inability to connect to a world outside of his own grief and confusion. He is adept and resourceful in the world of ideas, but flat-footed and indeci sive in the world of actions. Whereas Shakespearean characters such as Hotspur and Coriolanus suffer from shortsightedness and rash judgements, Hamlet suffers broad abstract thoughts and paralyzing ambivalence. This may be why the play has been able to so stalwartly defend its V.I.P status in the Western cultural conscious. Any thinking modern citizen knows what it means to fit round ideals into square realities. Therefore, it makes sense for Hamlet, one of our foremost fictional figures, to have trouble matching his internal ideals to the external world. In his introduction to the Norton edition of the play, Stephen Greenblatt points out that Hamlet, "seems to mark an epochal shift not only in Shakespeare's career but in Western drama." Greenblatt is referring to the dominance of Prince Hamlet's psyche over all aspects of the play's perspective and mood. Hamlet transports its audience into the Prince's mind and forces them to look at the world from the inside out. The view is startling. It is the source of the play's unanswered questions and thought provoking ambiguities. Shakespeare lets us see the world through the eyes of a man struggling to decide whether any of it even matters.

Imagery in the plays Oedipus Rex and Othello Essay

In any literature, themes and images play an important role in the reader’s understanding of what the literature would be discussing. Some images and symbols have universal meanings and these help readers relate the meaning of these images with the theme of a specific literature (Blue 2001). In many known literature, images and symbols are known to be the central theme of the story. The plays Othello and Oedipus Rex evidently make use of recurring images to reveal the central theme of the play. Oedipus Rex reveals blindness as a recurring symbol throughout the play. Usually, the Greeks associate clear vision to wisdom and insight (SparkNotes Editors. ). But in the story of Oedipus Rex, blindness is the main reference to the theme of the play. The image of blindness is famously associated to the scene when Oedipus blinds himself at the end of the play. The reason why he blinded himself is revealed in the lines: â€Å"You, you’ll see no more the pain I suffered, all the pain I caused! Too long you looked on the ones you never should have seen, blind to the ones you longed to see, to know! Blind from this hour on! Blind in the darkness-blind! †(â€Å"Shows†). It is through these lines of Oedipus that readers see that the reason he blinded himself is because his eyes served primarily as the one that deceived him from all the truth about his past. This blindness could also mean his blindness from the truth for so long (â€Å"Novel Guide†). Though blindness is often associated with the character of Oedipus, there is also another character to whom the image of blindness is depicted. This is seen through the character of Tiresias, a blind prophet. Though Tiresias is literally blind, he could see farther than others can (SparkNotes Editors). He is said to see beyond what others can see because even though he is blind he sees the truth about Oedipus. But Oedipus does not believe Tiresias and Tiresias reveals to Oedipus what he knows about his past: â€Å"So, you mock my blindness? Let me tell you this. You with your precious eyes, you’re blind to the corruption of your life, to the house you live in, those you live with-who are your parents? Do you know? All unknowing you are the scourge of your own flesh and blood, the dead below the earth and the living here above, and the double lash of your mother and your father’s curse will whip you from this land one day, their footfall treading you down in terror, darkness shrouding your eyes that now can see the light! †(â€Å"Novel Guide†). These lines of Tiresias show that even though he is physically blind, he sees the truth, unlike Oedipus though he sees â€Å"light† he is blinded by the darkness that surrounds the truth about his identity. The image of darkness and blindness as opposed to sight and light could be seen through Oedipus and Tiresias. Literally, the prophet Tiresias is blind and has been seeing the dark for so long, but though he is blind he â€Å"sees† the truth about the true identity of Oedipus (â€Å"GradeSaver†). As for Oedipus, he only truly â€Å"sees† or gains sight after knowing the truth about his past (â€Å"GradeSaver†). This enlightenment leaves Oedipus to blind himself because he could not face his family after knowing all about his past (â€Å"Study Guides and Teacher Resources†). Therefore the person that before sees the light now sees darkness because he was blinded by the truth. The recurring images of darkness and blindness are used in the play not only for the development of the readers’ understanding of the play, but also as a means of foreshadowing the tragedy that is about to come to Oedipus’s life because of his â€Å"blindness† to the truth which ironically in the end, results to his physical blindness. Truly, these images served a high purpose in letting the readers figure out the fundamental idea that is depicted throughout the play. The play Oedipus Rex makes use of the recurring images of blindness and darkness and light and sight and reveals that the theme of the whole story revolves around these images. The main theme is focused on one image that is used in this play, and that is blindness. This blindness does not necessarily mean physical blindness, rather it means being blind and ignoring the truth (SparkNotes Editors). This is seen through the blindness of Oedipus of the truth that he was the one who killed his own father, married his own mother and had a child that eventually became his siblings. He blinds himself from all these truths and pretends that he does not recognize what that has already been presented to him by the prophet Tiresias (SparkNotes Editors). This willingness of Oedipus to accept the awful truth about his past is the play’s overall theme. The recurring images of blindness shown by the characters and the exchange of lines among the characters served as a connection for readers to figure out the theme of the play. Aside from Oedipus Rex, Othello is another play that makes use of recurring images to let the readers immediately know its overall theme. Othello makes use of animals and monsters as images and metaphors to convey further understanding of the play. Animals are usually used by the characters in the play to compare their feelings and their views about a person or a situation. Monsters or beastly images are usually used in Iago’s speeches. In one line, he enrages Brabantio when he says that his â€Å"daughter and the Moor are now making the beast with two backs. † Iago makes use of the monster imagery of fornication to let Brabantio arouse his feeling of anger (Laymopun). It could be seen here that the use of the image of a beast to compare with a human being could bring about a strong emotional response from the other characters in the play and makes it more effective. Another use of monster or beastly image by Iago is seen in his soliloquy: â€Å"It is engendered. Hell and night / Must bring this monstrous birth to the world’s light. † Here, the image of giving birth to a monster is used as a metaphor to portray the birth of Iago’s evil plot (Laymopun). Here, it could be seen that the use of the image of a monster or a beast is associated with being evil; in this case, the evil becoming of Iago. Not only do monsters and beastly images appear in Othello, animal images are also used by the characters. Othello is the one that makes more use of animal imagery. Some of his lines such as: â€Å"exchange me for a goat,† and â€Å"I’d rather be a toad! † evidently makes use of animals such as goat and toad to say that he despises the act of being jealous (â€Å"Example Essays†). He also makes use of these animals as imagery when he was convinced that his wife was unfaithful. Being convinced that his wife was really unfaithful he loses control, saying: â€Å"goats and monkeys† (123HelpMe. com). Othello made use of the animals such as goats and monkeys because traditionally these animals are considered lustful (123HelpMe. com). Here, it can be seen that Othello made use of such animals to compare his wife to these animals and to show how he sees his wife and how he views things, especially jealousy. It is not only Othello that makes use of animal imagery, Iago also made use of such animal images to address Othello. In one part, Iago addresses Othello as â€Å"Barbary horse† and â€Å"old black ram† (SparkNotes Editors). Here, Iago makes use of animals to reflect how he sees Othello. Specifically, the â€Å"old black ram† does not only compare to Othello but is also one of the themes that is dominant in this play, that is, race (SparkNotes Editors). In the line â€Å"old black ram†, it is specified that Othello is black and Iago makes sure to include the â€Å"black† to the animal image to see which race Othello belongs to. It is through this that the relationship of the images with the theme of the play could be clearly seen. The theme of Othello could clearly be seen and understood through the use of animal and monster images. The use of the image of monsters imply that the fundamental idea that this play is presenting is the evil side of a person. This could be concluded because Iago often makes use of the monster or beastly image to refer to an act that is evil. It could also be seen that most animal images are used to refer to something negative. The idea of jealousy, infidelity, and corruption creates a negative and an evil atmosphere which shows the fundamental theme of the play (â€Å"GradeSaver†). Aside from the evil theme seen through animal and monster imagery, race is also another theme discussed in this play. It is mentioned earlier that Iago’s address to Othello as an â€Å"old black ram† shows not only the imagery of an animal but also how race was an issue in this play. It shows the contrast between the blacks and the whites through the character of Othello and that of the Venetian society (123HelpMe. com). Aside from the animal imagery of Othello as â€Å"an old black ram†, he is also referred to as â€Å"far more fair than black†. Both shows how Othello is always viewed with reference to the color of his skin and that even though he holds the position of a general, it still could not be ignored that he is black and the color of his skin still makes him an outcast in the Venetian society dominated by whites (123HelpMe. com). Here, the theme of race and the issue between the blacks and the whites, are clearly presented by using animal images. The use of animal and monstrous imagery by Shakespeare makes an impact on the audience by making them recognize the fundamental idea and the tragedy that Iago faces all because of his treachery. The use of imagery to portray the themes evil and race makes it easier for readers to make meaning out of the play Othello. An image in literature is best described as a mere representation of something that is not present (â€Å"Answers. com†). Images are used in literature to present a clear description or portrayal of a character and or a situation (â€Å"Answers. com†). In both plays, recurring images are seen and these images served as an instrument of figuring out the main focus of the entire play. Both Oedipus Rex and Othello make use of images that make it easier for audience and readers alike to explore their fundamental themes. The images used in both plays serve an essential purpose for the readers’ concept development and understanding of the plays. In Oedipus Rex, the image of darkness and blindness as opposed to sight and light is dominantly seen because of the representation of the blind prophet Tiresias who embodies not only blindness but also sight because even though he is physically blind, he â€Å"sees† the truth unlike Oedipus who is physically able to see but is blind about the truth of his past. In Othello, animal and monster or beast images are used so that readers and audience would be able not only to see but also feel its evil atmosphere. Not only do these images portray evil but also the issue the issue between the blacks and the whites. The use of images of animals as compared to persons and to the emotions that the characters have in the play makes it effective not only in addressing its theme but also in letting readers and audiences feel the atmosphere of the play. It is only right to conclude that the images used in both Oedipus Rex and Othello play an important role in the understanding of the theme of the plays. Looking at the relationship of the images and the theme of both plays, it could be said that images play an essential role in forming meaning by the readers. This could be supported by both the plays discussed because of how each image was rendered useful to the formation of meaning and identification of fundamental ideas discussed in both Oedipus Rex and Othello. Works Cited 123HelpMe. com. â€Å"Free College Essays – Use of Imagery in Shakespeare’s Othello†. Web. 06 June 2010 . Answers. com. â€Å"Image: Definition†. N. p. , n. d. Web. 7 Jun 2010. . Blue, Tina. â€Å"Traditional Themes and Motifs in Literature†. 2001. n. pag. Web. 2 Jun 2010. . Example Essays. â€Å"Animal Imagery in Othello†. N. p. , n. d. . Web. 2 Jun 2010. . GradeSaver. â€Å"Oedipus Rex or Oedipus the King Study Guide†. N. p. , n. d. Web. 2 Jun 2010. . GradeSaver. â€Å"Othello Study Guide:Major Themes†. N. p. , n. d. Web. 2 Jun 2010. . Laymopun. â€Å"Othello: Imagery – TermPaper†. Research Papers and Essays. N. p. , 20 07 2002. Web. 2 Jun 2010. . Novel Guide. â€Å"Oedipus the King: Metaphor Analysis†. N. p. , n. d. Web. 2 Jun 2010. . Shows. â€Å"Themes—Oedipus†. N. p. , n. d. Web. 2 Jun 2010. . SparkNotes Editors. â€Å"SparkNote on Othello. † SparkNotes. com. SparkNotes LLC. 2002. Web. 2 Jun. 2010. SparkNotes Editors. â€Å"SparkNote on The Oedipus Plays. † SparkNotes. com. SparkNotes LLC. 2002. Web. 2 Jun. 2010. Study Guides and Teacher Resources. â€Å"Oedipus the King Symbolism, Imagery & Allegory†. N. p. , n. d. Web. 2 Jun 2010.